Quebrals Reflections On Development Communication Education Essay

Upon reading Quebral ‘s Reflections on Development Communication ( 2002 ) , I stumbled upon the undermentioned lines: â€Å" Let us non bury development, allow us ne'er bury development. In development communicating, it remains the weightier of the two. † As a DevCom pupil who is about to step out of the university ‘supposedly ‘ equipped with all the cognition about development communicating, my immediate response to the statement above was to travel back to my ain experience all throughout my old ages with College of Development Communication ( CDC ) in University of the Philippines Los Banos ( UPLB ) . Afterwards, I felt the demand to cognize whether other senior pupils like me personally experienced and felt the weight of development in DevCom, which harmonizing to Quebral should be â€Å" weightier † as opposed to the communicating constituent – therefore, the birth of this research. Waisbord ( 2001 ) defined development communicating as â€Å" the application of communicating schemes and rules in the underdeveloped universe. † Harmonizing to Cagasan ( 2008 ) , this definition is based on the development theories that evolved through the old ages due to miss of advancement and betterment in the societal wellbeing of those populating in the post-war epoch. In relation to the persistent development jobs that paved manner to the alterations in the development idea and patterns of development communicating in general ( Ongkiko and Flor, 2003 ; Quebral, 2002 ) , there is the demand to continuously explore both the bing and emerging constructs of â€Å" development † in order to relieve these jobs. Quebral ( 2002 ) said that â€Å" communicating should follow where development leads. † Recognizing that the development constituent is the really nucleus of the development communicating subject calls for a deeper apprehension of how Development Communication pupils view â€Å" development. † This apprehension will be important in the function of the pupils as future development communicators. It is dry that cognizing how of import the development facet is in our DevCom work, there are really few surveies that explore the perceptual experiences DevCom pupils about development, all the more their experience on how the construct is emphasized in DevCom. The bing and emerging social jobs serve as the bases for the â€Å" substance of development † as discussed by Quebral ( 2002 ) . While development and communicating as separate constructs have their ain of import functions in the DevCom procedure, the development facet is found to be the weightier of the two. Development should order the sort of communicating needed to accomplish the ends of DevCom. However, development as a procedure and construct is of course germinating. The alterations in the development thought – from modernisation ( economic ) up to participatory ( critical ) – are accountable for the plurality of significances and understanding associated with the construct of development. Knowing this, it is interesting to cognize about the significances constructed by DevCom pupils sing the development construct and how they felt its importance through the full class of their undergrad DevCom experience. This survey was prompted by my personal inquiry as to whether what I have experienced in my three and a half old ages with CDC-UPLB truly emphasized the â€Å" weightier † importance of the development constituent. Different people have different experiences, experiences which are said to be socially constructed. Different experiences, in bend, consequence to different apprehension or reading of those experiences. This plurality is besides observed in DevCom pupils ‘ concepts of development and their experience in relation to the accent on this construct. This survey will be guided by Kelly ‘s Personal Construct Theory and its hermeneutical signifier, Social Constructionist Theory ( besides societal constructionism ) .Research ProblemThrough a heuristic-hermeneutic geographic expedition of selected DevCom pupils ‘ DevCom experience, this survey will try to reply: how do selected DevCom pupils â€Å" experience † the â€Å" weightier † development facet of DevCom in the BS Development Communication course of study? Specifically, this research will reply the followers: What are the concepts of development among selected DevCom pupils prior to exposure to DevCom classs? What are the present concepts of development among selected DevCom pupils? What are the specific experiences of selected senior DevCom pupils that influenced their meaning-making and apprehension of development? What are their sensed functions of development communicators based on their apprehension of development? What are the observations of selected DevCom pupils sing the preparation they received with regard to giving accent on the development facet of DevCom?Research AimsIn general, this research aims to follow how selected DevCom pupils â€Å" experience † the â€Å" weightier † development facet of DevCom in the BS Development Communication course of study by carry oning a heuristic-hermeneutic geographic expedition of their DevCom experience. Specifically it aims to: Identify the concepts of development among selected DevCom pupils prior to exposure to DevCom classs ; Identify the present concepts of development among selected DevCom pupils ; Determine the specific experiences of selected DevCom pupils that influenced their meaning-making and apprehension of development ; Determine selected DevCom pupils ‘ perceived functions of development communicators ; and Enumerate the observations of selected DevCom pupils sing the preparation they received with regard to giving accent on the development facet of DevCom.Significance of the StudyThe â€Å" I † position plays a large function in DevCom pattern since development communicators act as agents of alteration. This survey can lend in detecting how pupils understand and â€Å" experience † the construct of development which is believed to be the more of import constituent of DevCom and important in analyzing and practising development communicating. In add-on, this survey can make full in the spreads in understanding development as a construct and as the â€Å" weightier † constituent of DevCom, every bit good as the DevCom pattern in general. It can assist measure whether DEVC classs lead the pupils to the right path approximately development as a construct and the pattern of DevCom. Through the histories of the research worker and the selected senior DevCom pupils who participated in this survey, CDC-UPLB will hold the opportunity to take a glance of the DevCom experience of the college ‘s shortly to be â€Å" official merchandises † – the graduating pupils.Scope and Boundary linesThis survey is grounded merely on the premise that people with different concepts anticipate things in the same manner ( Kelly, 1963 ) . Craig ( 2002 ) , as cited in Cangao ( 2009 ) , said that one does non necessitate to hold a direct experience of what other people experienced in order to understand it. Alternatively, it can be assumed that what they have experienced resembles our ain. It is impossible to interview all the DevCom pupils ; therefore assorted purposive sampling was conducted. This is suited for surveies that merely necessitate a little part of a population to be studied. However, one disadvantage of this method is that there is no manner of cognizing whether the selected samples are representative of the population. Since this survey looks into the emic positions of the selected DevCom pupils sing their apprehension and existent â€Å" experience † of the weightier development facet, it can non be guaranteed that the same contemplations are true for the full population, sing the differences in their experiences. The term â€Å" DevCom experience † is besides used merely to mention to the journey taken by the selected senior pupils all throughout their old ages with CDC. This survey besides does non insinuate that DevCom should entirely set its attempts in stressing the development facet of DevCom ; for one, it is still a field of survey in Communication. However, the realisation of the â€Å" development as the weightier facet † – which ( based on my experience ) is frequently overlooked in some DEVC classs – should assist CDC realine its instructional precedences.Chapter IIREVIEW OF RELATED LITERATUREIn analyzing development communicating as a field, it is of import to understand its constituents to cognize how it works and whether its patterns are still aligned with its uttered ends. This literature reappraisal will supply a brief but comprehensive background about development communicating with the focal point on its development facet.The Evolving â€Å" Devel opment † Concept – the Core Ingredient of DevComDevelopment as a construct, as stated in different surveies, frequently takes a unidirectional way: â€Å" from a province of poorness to one of dynamic socio-economic growing † as stated by Quebral ( 2002 ) and it is frequently associated with the footings â€Å" betterment † ( Cagasan, et al. , 2008 ) and â€Å" positive † societal alteration or transmutation. In New Perspectives on Communication and Development ( 1976 ) , Everett Rogers defined the term development as â€Å" the purposeful alteration toward a sort of societal and economic system that a state decides it wants. † This is besides related to premise presented by Pratt ( 1993 ) wherein the writer stated that development revolves around the premise that bing and non-existing social constituents can order the â€Å" life criterions and the societal wellbeing desired by its people. † The thought of development may look really basic but it underwent a long history of development. A figure of surveies in DevCom traced the alterations in the development thought by sing the different theories that influenced the field. In discoursing the development of the development construct, Srampickal ( 2006 ) looked foremost into the modernisation theory by Lerner, Schramm, Pye, and Rogers in the 1950 ‘s and 1960 ‘s. This phase is similar to what Ongkiko and Flor ( 2003 ) referred to as the First Development Decade which entails the economic position of development. During this phase, development was gauged through the states ‘ gross national merchandise ( GNP ) or the entire value of goods and services in a twelvemonth and their capableness to accommodate new engineerings. Harmonizing to Preston ( 1996 ) , modernisation is an American thought which became popular after the Second World War for its claim that all societies were heading towards industrialisation. This development theory claims that the less developed states can merely better by undergoing economic growing and behavioural alterations in people in footings of labour ( Kendall, 2008 ) . Kendall ( 2008 ) elaborated modernisation theory through the economic development phases framed by former U.S. President John F. Kennedy ‘s economic adviser, Walt W. Rostow:Traditional PhaseThis is to a great extent characterized by â€Å" fatalistic value system † or the traditional and cultural beliefs which delimits the people to accomplish societal and economic alteration. This is the phase wherein people lack motive to work because of their belief that poorness and economic want are inevitable.Take-off PhaseDuring this period, people begin to be more optimistic about accomplishing economic growing. Here, high-income states guide the low-income 1s towards the following phase of economic development.Technological AdulthoodThis phase is determined by a state ‘s technological betterment, new industries and acceptance of beliefs and values being demonstrated by high-income states.High Mass ConsumptionThis is the last phase of Rostow ‘s economic development wh erein the state eventually achieves the â€Å" high criterion of life. † Modernization paradigm and its focal point on transmittal theoretical account of communicating which was characterized by transmittal of information through mass media runs were greatly criticized for pretermiting the potencies of interpersonal communicating in the procedure. However, subsequently on, this peculiar unfavorable judgment has been realized and was incorporated in the theoretical account ( Inagaki, 2007 ) . In support to this dominant paradigm, Everett Rogers ( 1976 ) introduced the thought of diffusion of inventions which concerns a top-down attack in pass oning technological thoughts, which in the 1960 ‘s were focused on agribusiness and household planning methods. The difference between modernisation theory and diffusion theoretical account lies on emphasizing the importance of interpersonal communicating. The latter recognized the restrictions of mass media in impacting behavioural alterations which is considered an advantage of interpersonal communicating ( In agaki, 2007 ) . One of the criticisms modernisation theory had to face was its limited description of development utilizing the duality between traditional and modern, agricultural and industrial, rural and urban, etc. ( Preston, 1996 ) . Modernization theory besides failed in the facet that development is non merely mensurable through economic statistics ( Lagerwey, 2009 ) . Fair ( 1989 ) said that the dominant paradigm of the First Development Decade failed to see the other causes of underdevelopment aside from economic footings ( e.g. GNP, per capita income ) which includes the â€Å" instabilities and category contradictions † historically created in Third World Countries through colonisation. Ong ( 2009 ) argued that even the economic position of development involves beyond mere economic sciences. The writer named several other concerns of development: efficient societal organisation, improved societal constructions, peace and order, skilled labour force, effectual policymaking and execu tion, to call a few. While it is true that development is economic in nature, it does non purely halt at that place. Harmonizing to Tagle ( 2009 ) , development must besides hold its societal constituent wherein self-fulfillment and harnessing of human possible drama a really of import function. Towards the terminal of the 1960 ‘s, the alleged dependence theory emerged which realized that the modernisation attack merely made the Third World states to a great extent dependent on the First World states ( Ongkiko & A ; Flor, 2003 ; Srampickal 2006 ) .The unfavorable judgments on the economic position of development led to the birth of the humanistic position in the 1970 ‘s ( Second Development Decade ) . During this phase, the quality of life ( indicated by fulfilment of basic demands, employment, equality and instruction ) and adult male himself became the steps of development ( Ongkiko & A ; Flor, 2003 ) . On the other manus, the 1980 ‘s was labeled as the Third Development Decade. During this period, realignment and concentrate on development precedences set during the old phase were initiated. Concerns like â€Å" adult females in development ( WID ) , environment, societal dimensions, autochthonal peoples and sustainable development † were given accent ( Ongkiko & A ; Flor, 2003 ) . Harmonizing to Roman ( 2005 ) , sorting the construct of development into different paradigms can be both utile and deceptive. The writer pointed out that while development paradigms are helpful for differentiation intents, they besides tend to take communicating bookmans astray by: ( 1 ) giving the incorrect thought that these paradigms finally replace each other ; ( 2 ) the impression that the paradigms are bound to be sole ; and ( 3 ) the magniloquence of these paradigms tend to befog how they are applied in world. He besides emphasized the inclination of development communicators to lodge with one of these paradigms which accordingly consequences to restricting themselves â€Å" within a general model of what development is or should be. † The alterations in the development idea have a really important impact on the communicating constituent of DevCom. Eligio ( 2008 ) noted that â€Å" the displacement in development thought † consequences in â€Å" rethinking of communicating. † This is farther supported by Quebral in her Contemplations on Development Communication ( 2002 ) where she pointed out that since development is the weightier facet of DevCom, it is besides the finding factor of the content of communicating. Quebral farther emphasized that even though DevCom is seen as a subdivision of communicating in an academic position – as pupils are taught about communicating being the tool or scheme used to consequence positive alteration in the society – it must ever be clear that the construct of development is more of import. This constituent of DevCom is the 1 that sets it apart from other communicating subjects and the 1 that determines the DevCom end and message. Quebral stressed that à ¢â‚¬Å" communicating should follow where development leads. † Given this degree of importance in the field, it is, therefore, imperative to give focal point on the construct of development.The Communication-Development RelationshipDevelopment as a desired societal criterion is believed to be possible through communicating ( Pratt, 1993 ) . Gebner ( 1967 ) , as cited in Ongkiko and Flor ( 2003 ) , merely defined communicating as â€Å" societal interaction through messages. † As an ever-changing procedure of reassigning messages and shared significances between and among members of society, communicating is said to take a really of import function in accomplishing the end of development. In different facets of life – societal, economic, religious, and political – development is believed to be impossible to take topographic point without the procedures of communicating ( e.g. information sharing, duologue, and knowledge exchange ) . Harmonizing to Wilkins an d Mody ( 2001 ) , the field of development communicating today has been re-conceptualized by the usage of modern engineerings and processes – in simple footings, the usage of communicating for social and single improvement. This besides enables communicating to link people in â€Å" participatory and shared-decision devising † ( Srampickal, 2006 ) . To understand DevCom, it is of import to understand development and communicating non merely as two separate constructs but besides as â€Å" spouses. † Majority of the literature that talks about development communicating defines the field as the usage of communicating to accomplish the end of societal alteration. However, Quebral ( 2002 ) pointed out that for the instance of DevCom at Los Banos, development communicating is non the same as â€Å" mediated communicating. † She reiterated the weightier importance of the development constituent in the field and that the ends of DevCom reflected in her definition – speedy transmutation, societal equity and fulfilment of human possible – are all refering to the â€Å" sort of development we are taking for. † Therefore, it is necessary to transfuse in the immature DevCom pupils the right â€Å" substance of development † in order for them to be applied in their pattern in the hereafter.Developmen t CommunicationThe being and return of different signifiers of social jobs gave birth to the field of development communicating ( DevCom ) . Harmonizing to Ongkiko and Flor ( 2003 ) it is out of necessity – the demand to work out the social jobs, peculiarly in developing states – that development communicating came into the image. DevCom as a professional and scientific field in the Philippines had its foundation on agricultural communicating, but the realisation that the development-oriented issues are non merely present in agribusiness and rural jobs paved manner to the alterations in the subject ( Ongkiko & A ; Flor, 2003 ; Librero, 2008 ) . Today, the dominant position of DevCom worldwide involves both the societal and single degree: ( 1 ) positive societal alteration and ( 2 ) realisation of human potency which finally leads to human improvement ( Wilkins & A ; Mody, 2001 ; Ongkiko & A ; Flor, 2003 ) . This is reflected in the most normally used definition of DevCom, at least for the Los Banos School of Development Communication, given by Dr. Nora C. Quebral ( 1988 ) : â€Å" aˆÂ ¦the art and scientific discipline of human communicating applied to the rapid transmutation of a state and the mass of its people from poorness to a dynamic province of economic growing that makes possible greater societal equality and larger fulfilment of the human potency. † This definition of DevCom, every bit good as its accompanying pattern, has already evolved since she foremost coined the term in 1971. In 1999, Quebral changed the footings â€Å" speedy † to â€Å" planned † and â€Å" societal equality † to â€Å" equity † ( Eligio, 2008 ; Quebral, 2002 ) . This shows the trouble in set uping a individual and inactive definition of DevCom due to the altering micro- and macro- scenes that the field has been exposed to and the uninterrupted alteration both in development [ and ] communicating ideas in peculiar ( Quebral, 2002 ) . Therefore, it is critical to concentrate on the â€Å" many beds of significance † attached to DevCom ( Eligio, 2008 ) .Marginalization and the DevCom BiasWilkins ( 2000 ) defined development communicating as â€Å" the strategic application of communicating engineerings and procedures to advance societal alteration † . The DevCom enterprises expressed in this definition fundamentall y falls under the end of bettering the quality of life of those in the poorer countries of the universe ( Morris, 2003 ) . Harmonizing to Waisbord ( 2001 ) , the historical factors that influenced development were founded on the embedded premise that the sort of development that developed states should be replicated by developing states. Although, this modernisation theory is believed to hold â€Å" passed † in the 1980 ‘s, Eligio ( 2008 ) still inquiries this passing of the dominant paradigm. In their treatment of development construct, Ongkiko and Flor ( 2003 ) presented foremost the societal jobs that must be addressed by development communicating. These social jobs are the 1s nowadays in the Third World states: poorness, unemployment, high population growing, inequality, malnutrition, and the likes of it. In relation to these social jobs, Quebral ( 2002 ) commented: â€Å" From clip to clip, an old job is dusted off and given a new or broad angle, as in nutrient production or generative wellness alternatively of household planning. Poverty, nevertheless, stays – starkly – as poorness. It has proved to be stubborn, many-rooted job withstanding one-dimensional solutions. † The development of development positions is non without matching alterations in attack. New constructs of development have emerged in recent surveies on development communicating. This includes accent on people mobilisation, authorization, and engagement ( Cagasan et al. , 2008 ) . However, the writer argued that development should travel beyond the basic demands: â€Å" poorness is no longer the exclusive account for underdevelopment. † The construct of marginalisation emerged and this involves issues of human rights, spiritualty, morality, and other well-being concerns of adult male. Therefore, marginalized people are non merely those who are missing in footings of economic position. While the positions and attacks have changed, the nucleus societal jobs related to underdevelopment stay the same. Ongkiko and Flor ( 2003 ) said that DevCom â€Å" purposes to learn the hapless to better his life. † The writer besides stressed the function of DevCom in assisting people fulfill the lower order of Maslow ‘s Hierarchy of Needs – a theory of motive which claims that human demands can be arranged harmonizing to their importance ( Figure 1 ) . It can hence be assumed that development communicating has a prejudice towards the marginalized sectors since they are the direct donees of DevCom projects.5th Self-Actualization and fulfilment4th Esteem and StatusHigher Order3rd Belonging and societal demandsLower Order2nd Safety and Security1st Basic Physical NeedsFigure 1. Maslow ‘s Hierarchy of Needs ( Ongkiko & A ; Flor, 2003, p. 165 )The alterations in development communicating throughout the old ages led to realisations of implicit in concerns sing p ower and construction ( Wilkins & A ; Mody, 2001 ) . Harmonizing to White ( 2004 ) , power in the field of communicating prioritizes the individualities and resources of different societal groups. Wilkins ( 2000 ) emphasized the demand to do alterations in the field of DevCom by locating â€Å" its discourse and pattern within contexts of power. † This focal point on power, along with the end of impacting positive alteration, is portion of the critical attack to DevCom. Quebral ( 2002 ) noted the different values which are all brought about by the paradigm displacements in the development idea. These values include engagement, struggle declaration, sustainability, and gender equality. One good illustration of this critical chase in DevCom is the survey conducted by Cadiz in 1994 that looked into the function of engagement in the development procedure. Eglio ( 2008 ) said that Cadiz took a â€Å" critical instead thanaˆÂ ¦ positive position of societal world † and that Cadiz ‘ survey showed that DevCom is a â€Å" communicating scientific discipline that addresses the societal worlds of the hapless. † In her effort to emphasize the DevCom ‘s displacement from positive position to a critical base, Quebral ( 1993 ) wrote: â€Å" Critical theoryaˆÂ ¦takes a more philosophical oppugning stance towards cardinal societal inquiries. Sing the communicating procedure as inseparable from society ‘s societal and cultural constructions, it sets as end the self-emancipation of people from domination ; hence its involvement in the Reconstruction of society. † Servaes ( 1999 ) , as cited in White ( 2004 ) , established the demand to get down development enterprises at grass-roots degree of communities. White ( 2004 ) explained Servaes ‘ thought by indicating out that the escape of societal motions from hierarchal construction by set uping their ain systems of communicating and organisation chiefly defines the development procedure.Plurality of Worlds and Concepts of DevelopmentMultiple worlds have influence on manner development communicators construe the construct of development. Harmonizing to Fetterman ( 1998 ) , the certification of multiple worlds in a specific field is â€Å" important to an apprehension of why people think and act in the different ways they do. † In analyzing societal jobs, which in the instance of this survey is important in understanding different significances of â€Å" development † , Holsti ( as cited in Moran, 1993 ) can be quoted: â€Å" We need constructs of what is, what is of import, what is desirable, and what is related to what are likely to be at the nucleus of the political procedure that societal, psychological, economic, or whatever procedure is to be studied. † This thought of Holsti is related to the construct of world that is personally constructed by an person. Moran ( 1993 ) said that personal building is ever the â€Å" mention point † for finding similarities and differences between/among constructs under survey. In the instance of University of the Philippines – College of Development Communication, the survey conducted by Cagasan et. al. , ( 2008 ) documented the assorted concepts of development that have emerged in module and pupil research surveies of CDC-UPLB from 1972 to 2004. The writers of the survey noted the â€Å" series of substitutions † that the construct of development has gone through in the instance of CDC-UPLB module and pupils who experience different worlds, given the diverse scenes and backgrounds, non to advert their personal prejudices. The survey participants were asked about their personal definitions of development, perceived significance of development based on DevCom pattern, their ain beliefs on what manifest development and significances of development based on their personal experience. Cagasan et. Al. ( 2008 ) presented three major subjects of development as consequences of the survey:Development as bettermentThis concept of development emerged from the grim influence of the modernisation paradigm. Development is viewed here as â€Å" betterment. †Development as a endThe altering multiplicity of significances of the development construct can be attributed to its nature of being a long-time end. Its subtheme involves the construct of â€Å" alteration. †Development as a procedureThe thought reflected in this concept is that development itself is a procedure. This most recent position of development involves the constructs of â€Å" authorization, engagement, autonomy, inaugural and societal investing. † Cagasan ‘s survey showed that the plurality in worlds can convey in multiple concepts of development. In the same manner, it is interesting to cognize how this plurality besides affects the manner immature DevCom pupils construe the construct of development.College of Development CommunicationThe College of Development Communication ( CDC ) website described the DevCom household as â€Å" [ a ] closely knit household of persons equipped with the cognition, accomplishments, and values to move as accelerators for societal alteration. † It is known as the 9th college of University of the Philippines Los Banos and considered to be the innovator in DevCom both as a field of pattern and field of survey in the universe. CDC started as the Office of Extension and Publications under the so UP College of Agriculture ( UPCA ) in 1954 and evolved several times until it was elevated into a college in 1998. The College introduces and trains undergraduate and graduate pupils in â€Å" procedures and constructions of communicating with accent on those that promote equity, authorization, environmental sustainability, and peace and human rights † ( Communication for Social Change Consortium, 2010 ) . The College ‘s vision and mission besides emphasize the end of sustainable development and betterment of quality of life the Philippines and other developing states. The Bachelor of Science in Development Communication plan requires pupils to finish 148 units which include the nucleus classs of DevCom, general instruction classs ( GE ) , every bit good as proficient and societal scientific discipline electives ( CDC-UPLB, 2004 ) . Since this survey will look into the experiences of the selected senior DevCom pupils, the wining subdivisions will advert the nucleus classs of the BSDC plan ( see Appendix A ) .Theoretical ModelThis survey falls under the phenomenological tradition of communicating which focuses on â€Å" depicting lived experience and acknowledging the significance of our corporal, inter-subjective life-world † ( Finlay, 2008 ) . Communicators influenced by this tradition take the emic position or a ‘view from the interior ‘ in looking at the mundane life of an person ( Griffin, 2008 ) . In this survey, the construct of meaning-making, every bit good as lived and shared experiences of the selected senior DevCom pupils in relation to their constructed significances of the development construct were explored. In the context of the â€Å" weightier † development facet in DevCom, experiences of the participants will state a batch specifically on how this construct is being emphasized in DevCom classs. Social constructionist theory ( besides societal constructionism ) , the hermeneutical signifier of constructivism, will be used to depict these experiences of the research worker ( heuristics ) and of the other selected participants ( hermeneutics ) .Personal Construct TheoryKelly ‘s PCT is besides called â€Å" theory of alteration † ( Rix, 1982 ) . Harmonizing to Neimeyer and Bridges ( 2004 ) , the focal point of personal concept theory ( PCT ) is on how persons and societal groups â€Å" organize and alter their positions of ego and universe. † By and large, an single positions the universe through forms which he/she creates to suit their worlds. These forms are called concepts ( Kelly, 1963 ) . Kelly ‘s thought of personal concept theory was derived in this earlier thought of â€Å" constructive alternativism. † Under this belief, adult male ‘s buildings of world depend on how adult male will construe the events and things around him which accordingly forms his ain positions of the ego and the universe. Kelly presupposes that adult male is a scientist – the 1 who invents his ain world and trial it. Man has the duty to foretell and command the class of events. As cited by Carl ( 1999 ) Kelly explained the function of adult male as a scientist: â€Å" The scientist does non keep up his or her theoretical proposal to be judged so much in footings of whether it is the truth at last or non — for the scientist assumes from the beginning that ultimate truth is non so readily at manus — but to be judged in footings of whether his or her proposition seems to take toward and give manner to fresh propositions ; propositions which, in bend, possibly more true than anything else has been therefore far. † Interpretation, anticipation and response in relation to personal experiences are possible through analysis of concepts ( Mahoney & A ; Mahoney, 2004 ) . Kelly ( 1963 ) established the thought that concepts are â€Å" representation of the universeaˆÂ ¦erected by a life animal and so tested against the world of that existence. † This implies that people do non merely move in response to external universe but he/she besides has the power to construe its events and behave harmonizing to them. PCT looks at people as animals that have the capableness to form their perceptual experiences or beliefs based on repeating subjects and significances ( Neimeyer & A ; Bridges, 2004 ) . Therefore, it can be construed from this that people have their ain readings of worlds depending on how they see the universe from their personal positions. This is a clear representation of Mahoney ‘s ( 1988 ) â€Å" proactive knowledge † which he considered to be one of the basicss of con structivism. Kelly ( 1963 ) besides introduced the construct of constructive alternativism wherein people have the power to ‘reconstruct ‘ his/her belief systems if they no longer suit him/her. For illustration, in the instance of this survey, even though pupils have been exposed to assorted significances of the construct of development during their first twelvemonth as DevCom pupils which may hold helped them set up a peculiar concept of it, they can do ‘alternative buildings ‘ based on their personal experiences. This farther explains the multiplicity of significances since the manner people construe the universe is affected by changing personal experiences.Constructivism and the Construction of ExperienceThe modern-day constructivist argument presents the statement between â€Å" cognition as innovation and cognition as contemplation of world † ( see Figure 2 ) ( Chiari & A ; Nuzzo, 1993 ) . This besides answers the inquiry: What is existent? and Does an external world exist? Littlejohn ( 1999 ) , as cited in Cangao ( 2009 ) , explains that constructivism looks into human readings and actions based on â€Å" classs of the head. † This implies that people ‘s procedure of making significances is done by â€Å" sorting experience into classs † which in bend are socially constructed and based on interaction with other people ( as cited in Cangao, 2009 ) . Constructivism is concerned with an single interpretation his/her world ; this is every bit opposed to the statement that people are representation of a socially-constructed world as said by societal constructionism ( Chiari & A ; Nuzzo, 2004 ) . Maturana ( 1978 ) , as cited in Chiari and Nuzzo ( 1993 ) , defined world as a â€Å" sphere specified by the operations of the perceiver. † The perceiver referred to by the writer is person who can â€Å" do differentiations in actions and ideas † while being able to work as a separate entity from his or her environment. In order to understand how personal concepts in relation to their ain constructs of world can be interpreted, Ewen ( 1992 ) enumerated Kelly ‘s colloraries aligned with the Fundamental Postulate [ â€Å" The psychological procedures that comprise our personality are of course active, and are molded into customary forms by the ways in which we anticipate the hereafter † ( Ewen, 1992, pp. 347 ) ] :Question Knowledge as Knowledge/realityrelationship asDoes an external world exist? INVENTION COINCIDENCE IdealismnoDoes it be independently of the perceiver? yes SPECIFICATION STRUCTURAL hermeneutic no Yoke yes Constructivism Is it possible to cognize it? Construction ADAPTATION group as VIABILITYyesIs it a lucifer between cognition and world possible?REPRESENTATION ADAPTATION trivial no as SYMMETRY critical RealismyesREFLECTION naifFigure 2. Wayss of gestating Knowledge-Reality relationship ( Chiari & A ; Nuzzo, 1993 )Construction Corollary: Peoples interpret events based on similarities and differences Individuality Corollary: Each person has his/her ain reading of events or world Organization Corollary: The usage of hierarchies — which besides vary among persons – in forming personal concepts Dichotomy Corollary: Every concept has two poles Choice Corollary: The inclination to value the pole of bipolar concept that allows more accurate anticipation of events Range Corollary: Concepts are believed to be merely utile in foretelling limited types of events Experience Corollary: System of building to a great extent relies on experiences and the desire to better in foretelling events Modulation Corollary: There are concepts that limit the alteration of the system based on what is convenient to them Atomization Corollary: An person can utilize the contradicting facets of personal concepts at different times Commonality Corollary: Different people can hold similar ways of interpreting things Sociality Corollary: An apprehension of how one interprets/views the universe is needed in order for a individual to associate to another individual. Boeree ( 2006 ) explained that by â€Å" procedures † in the cardinal posit, Kelly means that people ‘s experiences, behaviours, perceptual experiences and emotions are non caused by a preexistent world but by the unconditioned single desire and capableness to expect or construe the universe. For this research the Experience Corollary was considered. Kelly ( 1963 ) defined experience as the procedure of how an single continuously ‘reconstrues ‘ replicated events. The writer pointed out that experience corollary has a direct impact on our perceptual experience of acquisition. He noted that the credence of the phenomenon wherein a individual invariably concept or construe replicated events assumes the happening of the acquisition procedure. It can be said that â€Å" the experience and Reconstruction of that experience is synonymous with larning † ( Rix, 1982 ) .Social Constructionism ( Hermeneutic Constructivism )Harmonizing to Burr ( 2003 ) , societal constructionism embraces the being of many-sided versions of world as experienced by societal existences. Self and world are said to be human buildings. However, the manner humans construe what is existent for them – how they think and how they act on their ideas – is besides socially constru cted ( Collin, 1997 ; Raskin, 2002 ) . Simply put, we are societal existences who portion and see the universe with others ( Lock & A ; Strong, 2010 ) . For this research, hermeneutic contructivism, specifically Gergen ‘s societal constructionism, was applied to analyze the lived and shared experiences of selected DevCom pupils. This signifier of constructivism conceptualizes human psychological science as â€Å" ensemble of societal dealingss † ( Parker, 1998 ) and that there is no observer-independent world ( Raskin, 2002 ) . The analytical model used in this survey was adopted and modified from Pilon ‘s ( 2009 ) Heuristic-Hermeneutic Procedure in the Socio-cultural Learning Niches. Figure 3 shows that the procedure is composed of four phases: ( 1 ) prepossession, ( 2 ) reading, ( 3 ) apprehension, and ( 4 ) account. Based on the literature, this procedure is considered â€Å" participatory, experiential, and reflexive. †Analytic ModelInterpretation2( Experiences in larning contexts )Understanding31PreconceptionResearch worker+OTHERS( Insight, empathy, accomplishments, intuition ) ( Prior experiences, values, cognition )Explanation4( Revision, deeper understanding )Figure 3. The heuristic- hermeneutic procedure of the DevCom ExperiencePreconception was characterized by the selected senior DevCom pupils ‘ apprehension of development prior to exposure to DevCom classs. Interpretation was determined by their specific experiences in the class of their undergrad DevCom life, peculiarly the experiences refering to the accent on the â€Å" weightier † development facet in DevCom. Subsequently, apprehension is determined by how they acted on what they have learned in DevCom and how they developed their accomplishments and practiced critical thought. Last, account was characterized by their â€Å" deeper understanding † of the construct of development and their observations on how the development construct should be instilled as the much more of import constituent of DevCom.

Challenges of Boko Haram Insurgence on Nigeria’s Educational Sector Essay

The activities of the Islamic radical sect, Boko Haram has adversely affected Nigeria’s educational sector. This fact is not hidden as the name of the sect alone signifies a total outcry against education (western education) and schooling. Boko means â€Å"book or western learning in Hausa language and Haram means forbidden or sinful in Arabic language, thus the group’s name alone is a campaign against western education and schooling. Nigeria’s education sector at all level is suffering as a result of the current prevailing security situation in the north, a region where school enrolment has been the lowest in Nigeria. The sect’s activities have affected Nigeria’s educational sector in the following ways; †¢The sect’s activity has led to destruction of school buildings and other academic facilities †¢It has led to death of academic experts †¢It has led to exodus of academic experts and shortage of qualified teaching manpower in northern Nigeria †¢It has led to distraction and diversion of government’s attention from the educational sector †¢It has led to complete disruption of academic calendar in the region. So far this year, 15 schools have been burnt down in Maiduguri, the capital of Nigeria’s Borno State, forcing over 700 children out of formal education and pushing down enrolment rates in an already ill – educated region. The Islamic Boko Haram group is widely blamed for the attacks but the reality seems to be more complex. Both public and private schools in Maiduguri have been doused with gasoline at night and set on fire. Crude homemade bombs and soda bottles filled with gasoline have been hurled at the bare bones concrete classrooms Nigeria offers its children. The simple yellow facades have been blackened and the plain desks method to twisted pipes, leaving thousands of children without a place to learn, stranded at home and underfoot, while anxious parents plead with Nigerians authorities to come up with a contingency plan for their education. In a video posted on You Tube in February 2012, Boko Haram called on its follows to destroy schools providing western education in retaliation for the alleged targeting of Korani schools by the military. The spokes man of the sect, Abul Quqa, said the attacks were in response to what he called a targeting of the city’s (ie Maiduguri) abundant open – air Islamic schools by authorities. Since February when this call was made, many schools including private schools have been destroyed. However officials of the state have denied any of such attacks or campaign as young boys can be seen receiving lesson untroubled allover Maiduguri (the New York Times, 2012). This new dimensional shift of the sects attack has numerous adverse effects on educational development of the region and the country at large. According to Nigeria Education Data Survey 2010, school enrolment in Borno state is already low by 28 per cent than any other state in Nigeria. No doubt, the recent attack have made parents and guardians’ to withdraw their children from schools and has made it difficult for teachers and aid groups to persuade parents to let their children stay on at schools. Eric Gultscluss (a researcher in Nigeria for the Watching Human Right Organization) noted that it is not just the students at the targeted schools that end up being affected as targeting of schools can make children in neighboring schools to stay home or drop out completely for fear of further attacks. The targeting of children indirectly and destruction of schools in Maiduguri has bewildered and demoralized students, parents and teachers in a way that the daily attacks have not. Furthermore, the attacks have led to death of academic experts teaching in all levels of Nigeria’s educational system ranging from primary to secondary and beyond. On sun,29 April, 2012, members of the sect attacked Christian workshops in Bayero University Campus, Kano resulting to death of 20 students and 2 professor of the university. According to an eye witness, the attackers arrived in a car and two motorcycles and throw small homemade bombs to draw out worshippers before shooting at them as they attempt to flee. The attack led to the death of Professor Jerome Ayodele, a professor of chemistry and Professor Andrew Leo Ogbonyomi, a professor of library science with about 20 others dead and scores of others injured. (Ikhilae, 2012). Undoubtedly, this is a setback for educational development in the country. Also the persistence of insecurity in the north which has led to lose of about 700 lives so far this year (2012), has led to exodus of academic experts and shortage of qualified teaching man power in the region. It has also led to refusal of NYSC members who constitute about 50 per cent of teaching man power in the region to serve in the region. Maijawa Dawayo, Chairman, Yobe State Teaching Service Board, in an interview with Nations News Paper on 9 Feb. , 2012 has this to say, â€Å"the recent circular by the National Youth Service Corps (NYSC) that corps members who constitute 50 per cent of the board’s man power should no longer be posted to senior secondary schools in the state would have an adverse effect on the educational sector of the State. Most of the corps members are not interested in coming here again because of insecurity in the north. We are in a difficult situation and something needs to be done urgently to solve the problem. The corps members constitute 50 per cent of the manpower in our schools and the head of the scheme had issued a circular that corps members would no longer be posted to senior secondary schools (The Nation, 9 Feb, 2012). Dawoye’s fear and lamentation was later made public and a reality in July 2012 when NYSC members posted to Borno, Yobe, Kano, Kaduna, Niger, Plateau and Bauchi state refused to serve in the states and protested against their deployment to the violent prone states. Corps members and their parents took to the street to protest their deployment to the Northern States when the 2012 NYSC Bach B list came out arguing that it is senseless to post young graduate to these states. Most of the parents vowed not to allow their children to go and be killed by Boko Haram (National Mirror, 2 July, 2012). Awosuru Lola, a graduate of Ladoke Akintola University of Technology (LAUTECH), Ogbomoso in Oyo state, who was posted to plateau state said his father hard ordered him not to report at the camp â€Å"for whatever reason. † Also Badiru Tajiudeen, a graduate of quantity surveying of Obafemi Awolowo University (O. A. U), Ile – Ife, posted to Zamfara state vowed that nothing could keep him beyond the mandatory three weeks of orientation programme in the camp. He also said that his parents are even reluctant in releasing him to participate in the three weeks orientation and warned him to abort the programme if he is not transferred back to the west (National Mirror, 2 July, 2012). This development will make a devastating mark on the educational sector of the affected northern states. It will be recalled that ten young corps members lost their lives during the post – presidential election protest/violence in some northern states in April 2011, while others lost their lives in other violent clashes in the region. The case of other Southerners who are teachers in the region is not different from that of NYSC members as most of them have found the exit door from the region. Dawayo confirmed this when he said that 80 per cent of Yobe State contract teachers who are from other states have left Yobe because of the same problem of insecurity (The Nation Feb 9, 2012) In addition, insecurity in the region caused by Boko Haram has also led to complete disruption of academic calendar in the region. Most of the attacks never go without imposition of curfew by the government. The attacks have in some cases led to imposition of 24 hours curfew and when such curfew is imposed, both students and teachers are affected and this on the long run adversely affects the academic calendar which stipulates when school starts and when it ends as well as what should be done in the school and when thus drawing students in the region behind their counterparts in other peaceful states. It is important that I state it clearly at this juncture that the North is a region where education enrolment and development is the least in the country and the current security situation is bound to compound the educational woes of the North and further widen the gap between it and the South. While private higher institution are rapidly springing up in the South to complement the over – stretched public institutions, only a handful has been established in the North and the few ones have come under Boko Haram attacks. According to National University commission (NUC), 50 private universities have been licensed to operate in the country. Out of this 50, fewer than 15 are established in the north. What this implies is a bleak future for educational development of the region and a bleak future for young children in the region and this by implication is dangerous to Nigeria’s peace, unity and development. No matter how one looks at it, the attacks by the sect on schools have left many destructive marks on the future of affected children in the region and the country at large. The affected children are at home which means a bleak future for them and the country at large because the future of a country depends on the kind and quality of education it offers its children. Finally, the insurrection of Boko Haram has led to distraction and diversion of both Federal and affected State government’s attention from the educational sector. This is evident in the 2012 annual budgetary allocation of the Federal Government in which the mind – bugling chunk of 921. 91 billion was allocated to security alone, while education on which the future of the country depends got the little chunk of 400. 48 billion naira which is not up to half of what is given to security. There is no argument on the fact that both security and education are critical for the survival of a nation, but had it been there is peace in the country, the chunk given to security would have been considerately lower than what it has now. What the lean resources allocated to the educational sector means is a gloomy and difficult future for the sector. This is because there will be no resources to introduce new educational developmental program and the ones already introduced will certainly suffer of poor funding.

The History of Home Schooling

Before the beginning of American public schools in the mid-19th century, home schooling was the norm. Founding father John Adams encouraged his spouse to educate their children while he was on diplomatic missions (Clark, 1994). By the 1840's instruction books for the home were becoming popular in the United States and Britain. The difficulty of traveling to the system of community schools was provoking detractors. At this time, most of the country began moving toward public schools (Clark, 1994). One of the first things early pioneers did was set aside a plot of land to build a school house and try to recruit the most educated resident to be the schoolmarm. This led to recruiting of graduates Eastern Seaboard colleges to further the education oftheir children beyond what they could do at home (Clark, 1994). As the popularity of the public school movement began to rise behind Horace Mann many states soon passed compulsory-education laws. These were designed primarily to prevent farmers, miners, and other parents form keeping their kids home to work (Clark, 1994). Ironically another factor behind public schools was the desire to use them to spread Christian morality, with its concern for the larger good over individualism (Clark, 1994). Massachusetts enacted the first such laws in 1852 requiring children ages 8-14 to be at school at least 12 weeks a year unless they were too poor. The laws proved to be effective, from 1870-1898 the number of children enrolling in the public schools outpaced the population growth. Except for certain religious sects and correspondence schools home schooling remained limited for most of the 20th century. During the 1960's the hippie counterculture exploded into the scene. This culture led a revolt against the education establishment. Thousands of young Americans began dropping out of society and going back to the land to live on communes that generated the modern home schooling movement. Twenty years ago, many states did not allow home schooling. Constitutional protection has always been uncertain. The U.S. Supreme Court has never explicitly ruled on home schooling. Although in 1972, in Wisconsin v. Yoder, the Court did restrict compulsory school requirements in a limited ruling involving the right of Amish students not to attend high school (Lines, 1996). In Wisconsin v. Yoder, the Amish parents claimed that high school attendance was destructive to their children's religious beliefs and would interfere with their pursuit of the Amish way of life (Fisher, Schimmel, and Kelley, 1995). Since this ruling there have been many court cases dealing with the issue of home schooling. All 50 states allow home schooling ad 34 states have enacted specific home schooling statutes or regulations (Clark, 1994). What drives many home-schoolers are the well-documented social troubles and the declining test scores in the public schools. In 1991, the total number of children being home schooled was between 248,500 and 353,500. Many public educators feel that children who are home schooled are missing out on key learning situations that come from the public school. For instance the sciene experiments, these would be very costly to duplicate at home. Also they argue that home school children miss out on the social aspect of school. Very often they are not around many children their age and socialization does not take place. As the home schooling movement has become more widespread, state and local officials have responded with more vigorous enforcement of their compulsory education laws. As a result of this there is more litigation and new regulations. As both parents and school official's evidence increasing inflexibility, the statues play a central role in the battle over the education of the child. A secondary role is played by the courts which, in resolving the disputes between parents and the schools, must interpret and test the statutes (Chiusano 1996). Parents who are being prosecuted for instructing their children at home are attacking compulsory school attendance statues on constitutional grounds. Although no case dealing specifically with home instruction has yet reached the Supreme Court, the increased activism of the home school movement may produce a ruling in the near future (Lines, 1996). Constitutional challenges have been based on the First or Fourteenth Amendment. In many of the home instruction cases' parents have removed their children from school for religious reasons. These parents argue that they have a highly protected First Amendment freedom to educate their children according to their religious percepts and values. The most recent court decisions provide consistent continued confirmation of the Yoder decision. In Howell v. State (1986), Texas' intermediate appellate court rejected Yoder protection for parents who argued that their religious conviction was to educate their children at home (Richardson, Zirkel, 1991). In State v. Schmidt (1987), the Ohio Supreme Court held that the state's explicit-exceptions statute, which requires that home education programs be approved by the local superintendent, did not violate the free exercise clause. Another religious issue has surfaced when parents have challenged the constitutionality of requirements concerning the qualifications of the home teacher (Richardson, 1991). A few states including Michigan require all teachers in home school to possess a teaching certificate. This requirement in Michigan was challenged in 1980, 1986, and 1991. In Hanson v. Cushman (1980), the federal district court found the statute to be reasonable because the parents had not proven that any of their fundamental rights had been violated. In the private school case of Sheridan Road Baptist v. Department of Education (1986), other Michigan parents challenged the certification requirement as a burden on the free exercise of religion. This was rejected by the Michigan Supreme Court, regarding certification as a minimal burden that was outweighed by the State's interest in providing proper education. In People v. DeJonge parents claimed the right to educate their children at home, as an exercise in religious freedom. The court upheld the state law ruling that the state's interest in educated citizens outweigh the rights claimed by the parents (Fischer, 1995). In a related Michigan case, People v. Bennett (1983), the State Supreme Court ruling involving home-school families that had been convicted of violating the compulsory education statute, was reversed from he lower courts decision. The State Supreme Court permitted religious home schooling on First Amendment grounds and curbed the power of education officials to review home schooling policies (Clark, 1994). The other constitutional attack on compulsory attendance laws is non religious, primarily on Fourteenth Amendment due process grounds that parents have the right that is, the liberty, to educate their children as they see fit (Richardson, 1991). This right argued parents is superior to the state's right to compel attendance and regulate education. In Scoma v. Chicago Board of Education (1974), Blackwelder v. Safnauer (1988), and Murphy v. State (1988), the courts specifically rejected the contention that the parents had an independent, non religious, fundamental right in educating their children. In Scoma, the parents sought an injunction and declatory judgment to prevent the Chicago Board from interfering with their decision to educate their children at home. Under the Pierce and Yoder test the Illinois federal district court said the statute is reasonable and constitutional (Richardson, 1991). Now that home schooling s allowed in all 50 states, thenext step for these parents is to incorporate their children's' home schooling with public school activities. One such instance is in Iowa that started the Home Instruction Program giving parents several choices relating to their child. For instance, the curriculum they will follow, the type of assistance they would like from teachers, and whether their child will attend the neighborhood school part time (dual enrollment). This program allows parent to work with public school officials. The public school teacher meets with the home school family every two weeks (Dahm, 1996). The most recent issue being dealt with by local school boards and state governments are the extent to which home schooled students can participate in school sports and other activities. The issues in how far public schools can open their doors to home schoolers include science labs, music classes, and extracurricular activities, but athletics get the most attention according to the Home School Legal Defense Fund (Brockett, 1995). That is because competitive sports are the one activity families can not easily duplicate as their children reach high school age. The Massachusetts Interscholastic Athletic Association, after three state judges ruled against home schoolers being barred from playing on public high school teams, has initiated a one year open door trial program (Brockett, 1995). A Pennsylvania federal court ruled the constitutional rights ofa 14 year old taught at home were not violated, when the Frazier school district refused to let him play sports because the district could not verify his grades and attendance. In a related situation the Governor of Florida vetoed legislation that would have opened extracurricular activities to home schoolers. He explained that no state law bans them from participating. This left standing a policy of the Florida High School Athletic Activities Association banning non students on the theory that they can not represent what they do not attend (Brockett, 1995). This negative attitude of High School Athletic Associations has led parents of home schooled athletes to take their argument to court. For example, in Massachusetts, Melissa Davis was allowed to play on Norton High School softball team even though she is home schooled (Blum, 1996). The state court judge ordered Norton to allow her to play believes she may have a chance to earn an athletic scholarship to college. To be eligible to play athletics a home schooled athlete must apply to the association for a waiver of its initial eligibility rules, submitting documents proving what they were taught at home meet N.C.A.A. standards. Under these standards a home schooled athlete who has sufficiently high standardized test scores and proof that they took at least 13 courses that meet the associations core course standards may be automatically awarded freshman eligibility (Blum, 1996). From the recent decisions handed down by the courts, public school teachers and schools are expected to cooperate with home school educators. The hostility between the two groups has began to disappear and the focus has returned to seeing that the students get the best education they can. If both sides of the spectrum continue to work together this can be achieved.

Semiotics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Semiotics - Essay Example Ultimately, it is now the child’s time to break free from the rein’s of this paternal instinct (Castro’s oppressive regime) and assume its position in the world. Photographs change with and in time in a number of ways. In these regards, one must consider that a photograph exists through its interpretation by outside observers. In these regards, a photograph is a part of an ever-evolving cultural apparatus. In terms of historical photography, particularly, one considers that a photograph changes in time as the historical situations change. One considers the nature of Fidel Castro pictures during the revolution, as during this time they depicted an individual that represented hope and equality for many Cubans. Today these photographs represent an oppressive dictatorship in its early stages of development. In addition, a static photograph can change in the blink of an eye. In these regards, one can discover unique information about this photograph, for instance it could be a picture of a serial killer at a young age that drastically changes one’s understanding of the image. One considers an example of the picture of the raising of the fl ag at Iwo Jima. This photograph represented American victory at one point, yet through the years it has changed to now represent a bygone era in American history. A photograph can also be a metaphor for an entire life. While such a pronouncement may be deductive for some people, as examined on an individual basis a human’s life carries with it a complex amount of changes. Still, many humans who have lived public lives have come to be remembered for significant events or specific characteristics that come to define them as people. One considers the American sport of football as a primary example where individuals come to gain heroic status for their actions. A picture of Joe Montana throwing a touchdown pass then could

Medical Information From Websites Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Medical Information From Websites - Essay Example Many folks search the internet to know more on some of their concerns in terms of health (Miller & Pellen, 2006). Symptoms are searched to see if one might be suffering from something, and the information gathered makes them conclude they need help. This paper will examine three websites that offer information on medical information, and if they follow the needed protocol to give information to the public. In the medical field, there are principles that websites need to abide by before they can say they are capable of offering medical information. In this case, the HONcode is used by these services to give people in need of information on medical issues some assistance. Individuals, more often than not, need guidance before they can access this information (Miller & Pellen, 2006). These websites should provide the right avenue in which they can do this. The HONcode certifies the measures in place that can assist in knowing the credibility of these medical websites. For the HONcode to be used, the websites need to be registered with it before they can claim to follow the principles it uses. In the first website, the WebMD focuses on giving users an overview into some of the most common issues that affect them daily. The HONcode has eight criteria that ensure the website is following some of its principles while providing information to users. In the first criterion, the website immediately stamps its authority. This is through revealing its authors and medical personnel involved in helping run the website. There is a section where their views on critical health issues are offered. It is also complementary. They offer individuals information. They, however, do not advice folks on the medical treatment they need. It, therefore, does not replace the doctor-patient factor. The privacy factor is also upheld through the process of signing in to get personal attention. This is through their privacy policy at the sign in feature. Moreover, published information from oth er medical personnel is available to users. If one gets to sign in, the problems they exhibit can be backed up by other works, for example, medical journals. Through their sponsor policy, the website can justify their performance over the recent past, hence; provide a user with the ultimatum to continue with the search. Their focus on being transparent is seen in the form of clear contact details about their professionals, and where they can be found. Also, the website’s funding is addressed in the sponsor policy and how many groups are involved. Advertising through the website is also possible. All websites need to clearly advertise the products they have, and any group that is advertising through them is identified. However, they do this away from the editorial section. In the next website, mayoclinic.com, the HONcode principles are also exhibited. In a section for their professionals, the website stamps its authority. Their qualifications are found in this section, which e nables the user to feel at ease with the use of the website. The complementary aspect of the website is not brought out because; they do offer medical advice. This is through diagnosing the symptoms an individual has through professional assistance. Privacy is also another issue individuals are concerned with whenever they decide to sign up with such websites. However, in this website, there is the assurance of privacy through the privacy policy they have before admittance.

Critical Analysis on the book Tracks by James Welch Essay

Critical Analysis on the book Tracks by James Welch - Essay Example Misshepeshu, the underwater manito, "influences the abundance and availability f land and sea animals" which great effect the food supply (Vecsey 74). This matchi manito is credited with most malicious acts happening in or around the water. According to Chirstopher Vecsey, an Ojibwa religion scholar, "It could cause rapids and stormy waters; it often sank canoes and drowned Indians" (74). But it is also known to "shelter and feed those who fell through the ice" (Vecsey 74). The very dialectical nature f Misshepeshu is something in which Nanapush and the other tribesmen firmly believed. For example, when Fleur returns to the lake from Argus, the town experiences a period f good fishing and no lost boats. They attribute this to Fleur's ability "to keep the lake thing controlled" (Erdrich 35). Because the manito f the lake is appeased, people are hesitant to question the relationship that Fleur has with the monsters in fear f enraging him. Both narratives open with the introduction f Fleur Pillage, the heroine f the novel. Immediately, the reader notices a distinct difference in the two narrators' descriptions f Fleur's arrival to the tribe. The tribe elder Nanapush, also the opening narrator, is the first to find Fleur Pillager after an attack on her family. He notes that she is "about seventeen years old...[and] so feverish that she'd thrown off her covers, and now she huddled against the cold wood range, staring and shaking" (Erdrich 3). When the reader proceeds to Pauline's narrative, they realize that Nanapush never mentioned Fleur's relation to the lake monster. The absence f the Misshepeshu from Nanapush's narrative suggests that he is comfortable with his system f beliefs. His language and tone tells the reader that his is not searching for new meaning in life or religion. He was raised a pure breed Chippewa and he embraces these roots. To Nanapush, the lake monster has always been a part f his struggle for su rvival. He has seen both the good and the evil f Misshepeshu, never questioning its actions but living with them. In contrast to Nanapush's narrative, Pauline's is overshadowed by a preoccupation with the lake monster f Matchimanito. When she introduces Fleur, she shows no concern for Fleur's well being, but rather astonishment over Fleur's ability to evade the death f Misshepeshu. Pauline describes the monster: Erdrich's choice f the word "devil" suggests to the reader that Pauline has been schooled in Christianity. This is reaffirmed to the reader when it is learned f Pauline's desire to a join the convent. The Christian vision, now branded in her mind by missionaries, will not allow her to view the water manito as a contributing part f her life, but only as the ultimate sinner: the Christian Devil. Confused as to her religion and her identity, Pauline ultimately moves into a convent to live in seclusion f the tribe and Misshepeshu. But she is drawn away each day to visit the lake where Fleur and Eli live, unable to cease the thoughts about the monster who, she claims, is her "tempter." The dual nature f the lake creature goes against her new beliefs as a Christian and is the source f her misunderstanding. Whereas the nuns at the convent pray to one God representing the absolute perfection f

Solutions for Rising Sea Level Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Solutions for Rising Sea Level - Essay Example A secondary approach would therefore be to seek to find alternative means to integrate with the changing environment as a way to ensure survival and success for oneself and the progeny that one leaves behind. This brief essay will analyze three distinctly different options for this latter approach as well as commenting and discusses the means by which these would ultimately be accomplished. The first of these has to do with building artificial islands as a means of providing many of the low-lying Pacific islanders alternate dwelling places if sea levels continue to rise to the degree that they have. Although this may seem as a type of science fiction, history has proven that man-made islands have the possibility to both be created and support life within them (Vidal, 2011, Â ¶2). As such, this particular article, published in the Guardian in 2011, discusses the means whereby the leadership of several Pacific island groups are pursuing relevant information with regards to how they ca n construct or augment islands as a function of ameliorating the threat of the seemingly endless rise of sea level which poses such a direct and existential threat. Although the ideas that are put forward are imaginative, it is the belief of this author that they are both too fanciful and too costly to be put into practical application. A far more effective, albeit entirely destructive means which would engender the same effect would be to merely concentrate on building up the level of the existing island. Similarly, another approach that is illustrated by another article published by Climatewire in 2010 states that coastal regions and shareholders should immediately seek to build sea walls and other means to halt the rise and encroachment of the sea (Mulkerin, 2010, Â ¶29). This approach too is good in that it requires shareholders to be proactive towards seeking to find a unique solution to the challenge that rising sea levels engender. However, the key fault in such an approach is the fact that in order for it to be ultimately effective, it must be engaged upon by all shareholders in order to ameliorate the underlying problem of sea rises. However, a strength to such an approach is that it could ultimately save billions of dollars that would otherwise be required to build up the land to an acceptable height in order to stave off the encroachment of an advancing sea. Similarly, the final article discuses a litany of ways in which humanity might seek to integrate itself with the rise of sea levels rather than seeking to find all manner of expensive means to alleviate the effects of a rising sea. Naturally this poses many problems with regards to where the mass of humanity will live and how such a system could ultimately work; however, the author of this piece provides intriguing alternatives to include the possible and perhaps even probably development of an entirely new form of economy in which humanity will seek to become more tightly integrated with its e nvironment as well as finding new and constructive means to integrate his/her life with the sea. Such a level of symbiosis would not only help to provide for he further sustainment of humanity but could also help to avert any such future disasters such as the one which is currently being perpetrated with regards to global warming and the melting of the polar ice caps. Though each of the ideas that have been proposed bear a certain application as well as a level of promise to key groups, it is the belief of this author tht

Discuss the importance of process and materials in the work of your Essay

Discuss the importance of process and materials in the work of your artist or designer ( Rex Brandt ) - Essay Example Further, as a teacher, he inspired innumerable students to paint skillfully with watercolours. To Brandt (p.9), working with this oldest medium known to man was exciting because the transparent colours glowed like stained glass. Thesis Statement: The purpose of this paper is to investigate the watercolour artist Rex Brandt’s paintings, and determine the importance of process and materials in his works. The Importance of Process and Materials in the Work of Rex Brandt Brandt (a) (p.119) considered drawing to be the at the heart of watercolour painting. He advocated the importance of sketching as a primary step even in the case of landscapes, and the development of an individual style in executing a painting (Brandt (b) 16). Another requirement was an appropriate choice of materials for achieving best results, and he took into consideration the key role of paper for the medium of transparent pigment or watercolours. The artist appreciated the sparkling white paper adjacent with the transparent, colourful dark hues which forms a unique feature of watercolours. According to Brandt (p.81), â€Å"pure or transparent watercolour is universally appealing† because of its clarity and directness in portraying the image or scene. The artist used three basic watercolour techniques: the wash or control method, wet-into-wet, and dry brush and line. All the three methods may be used in the same painting (Brandt 145). It was considered essential to master the techniques of flat and gradated washes before progressing to the wet-into-wet, drybrush and line methods. Brandt focused equally on controlling the wash, handling colour through the different techniques as given above, correcting mistakes, and on matting and framing the completed art work. Further, the way thin watercolour on white paper reflects light has been compared by Brandt (p.11) to â€Å"the luster of a sea-shell, the translucence of a tide pool, and the luminosity of coloured glass against the sunâ € . After evaporation of the water and the gumbinder taking hold, each small nuance of the painting becomes fixed to the white surface of the paper. However, the main charm of using watercolours is its distinctive potential for gradation which contributes to the visual excitement created by the paintings. This effect is produced by arpeggios or flowing series of gradations in colour and value, as seen in Fig.1. below. Thus, watercolour is a special medium which readily accommodates an interchange of colours as well as gradation, which in turn can modulate its characteristic movement, liquidity and bounce. Fig.1. August at South Beach by Rex Brandt (California Watercolour (1), 2011) In watercolour paintings, accents with with the help of light watercolours are not completed as finishing touches, since light shades cannot cover dark watercolours. Working from light to dark is most effective in such paintings; similarly, it is advisable to work from very broad areas to smaller areas â€Å"since the progressively darker washes will overlay and obscure the lighter ones† (Brandt 98). The artist provided accents using the extremes of light and dark colours; while the grays acted as amalgams thereby giving a sense of unification to the entire picture. A vast number of Brandt’

Joseph Papp(Theatrical Producer) Research Paper

Joseph Papp(Theatrical Producer) - Research Paper Example At the age of twelve years, Papp had already learned a gig as a soprano boy at a Sephardic synagogue in Brooklyn. Since then, he developed an interest in theatre, and to him intolerance was a greater threat than poverty (Horn 21). He was also the pioneer of the New York Shakespeare Festival and the public Theatre and he was the most important person in the American theatre during the second phase of the 20th century. Although he was not so good a student in academic work, Joseph Papp went to the Actors Laboratory Theatre College, which was situated in Hollywood where he studied acting and directing from the year 1946 to 1948. With the help of his teachers, he was able to feel a strong urge for Shakespeare (Horn 23). This made him to get a position as an assistant stage director of the national touring company of an Arthur Millers â€Å"Death of a salesman,† (Ullom, 24) two years after graduating from the Actors Laboratory Theatre. He started the New York Shakespeare Festival a fter working for closely to two years as an assistant director for the CBS in New York City. The New York Festival that he started became so different organization from other theatrical institutions in that it was able to provide free and unrestricted presentations and performances of Shakespeare’s dramas across different places within the New York City, comprising the outdoor production at the Central Park. When the company was given the Delacorte Theatre as their lasting base, JosephPapp worked for a long time with little pay just to make sure that he established the festival by remaining the decision maker of the festival while producing and directing most of the dramas and plays by himself (Epstein 33). Papp later started again the New York Shakespeare Festival Public Theatre, in 1967, whose primary function was to look upon modern and tentative dramas. The majority of its productions in the end travelled to

Research project Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Research project - Essay Example The historical context of the UK wine industry will be analyzed in that the people and firms who decided to develop the wine industry in the UK will be focused upon. Factors which were vital in the process of early development in order to continue the production of wine and maintain its success will be looked at. The competition in the market for the wines produced in the UK will be researched. It would be analyzed just how conducive the prevailing climate in various parts of UK are for the growth of grapes and the availability of land. The government policies and rules and regulations with regard to the production of wine in the UK would also be considered. Whether these are supportive to the UK wine industry or not will be highlighted. Research will be conducted to find out the general popularity of wine among British people and whether the popularity is increasing or not. The awareness and knowledge about the British wine in the hospitality industry such as among the restaurants a nd hotels in the UK would also be considered. That is how much restaurants and hotels are ordering British wine from their suppliers and the demand for these by the customers will be looked at. It is also hoped to highlight upon how the hospitality industry can contribute and support the development of wine industry in the UK such as with different ways of advertising and promotion. Finally this project hopes to give an insight about the future of the UK wine industry and in which direction it is heading. The popularity of UK wine is at an all time high. This has prompted some research in this area. Wine, which could be considered as a convenience product is taken by UK people with their daily meals. The wine industry could be defined with reference to enterprises mainly involved in producing wines, brandy sprits and brandy. This enterprise also includes bonded wine cellars who are engaged in

Alexander Calder Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Alexander Calder - Essay Example Calder' firt exhibition of painting took place in 1926 at the Artit' Gallery, New York. Later that year, he went to Pari and attended the Acadmie de la Grande Chaumire. In Pari, he met tanley William Hayter, exhibited at the 1926 alon de Indpendant, and in 1927 began giving performance of hi miniature circu. The firt how of hi wire animal and caricature portrait wa held at the Weyhe Gallery, New York, in 1928. That ame year, he met Joan Mir, who became hi lifelong friend. ubequently, Calder divided hi time between France and the United tate. In 1929, the Galerie Billiet gave him hi firt olo how in Pari. He met Frederick Kieler, Fernand Lger, and Theo van Doeburg and viited Piet Mondrian' tudio in 1930. Calder began to experiment with abtract culpture at thi time and in 1931 and 1932 introduced moving part into hi work. Thee moving culpture were called "mobile"; the tationary contruction were to be named "tabile." He exhibited with the Abtraction-Cration group in Pari in 1933. In 1943 , the Mueum of Modern Art, New York, gave him a olo exhibition. (Haye, 99-101) During the 1950, Calder traveled widely and executed Tower (wall mobile) and Gong (ound mobile). He won the Grand Prize for culpture at the 1952 Venice Biennale. Late in the decade, the artit worked extenively with gouache; from thi period, he executed numerou major public commiion. In 1964-65, the olomon R. Guggenheim Mueum, New York, preented a Calder retropective. He began the Totem in 1966 and the Animobile in 1971; both are variation on the tanding mobile. A Calder exhibition wa held at the Whitney Mueum of American Art, New York, in 1976. Calder died November 11, 1976, in New York. Early Work & Non-artitic Career Born into a family of artit in Lawnton, Pennylvania, to culptor Alexander tirling Calder and portrait painter Nanette Lederer Calder, both Calder and hi older iter, Margaret Calder Haye, were encouraged to be creative from childhood. (Calder, 13) Calder' firt ignificant recognition a an artit came when he exhibited hi now- famou miniature circu with it animated wire performer at Pari' alon de Humorite in 1927. The idea for the toy figure can be traced back to ketche he made in 1925 while reporting on the circu for the Police Gazette. Made from wire, rubber, cork, button, bottle cap, wood, and other mall "found" object, Calder' circu include lion, acrobat, trapeze artit, elephant, a ringmater, and numerou other figure. Unlike many art work of the period, the unuual creation drew crowd from outide the artitic community a well a within, and the thirty-year-old artit found himelf uddenly widely known. (Prather, 22-32) Facination with the Circu Calder tudied at the Art tudent' League from 1923 to 1926 and worked a a freelance illutrator and toy deigner. Hi facination with the circu began in 1925 when he pent two week ketching at Ringling Brother and Barnum and Bailey Circu on aignment for the National Police Gazette. In 1926 he began creating the firt few figure of wire and wood which were later to grow into the Cirque Calder (Eagle, 7) Calder' firt wire culpture, Joephine Baker (1926), a witty linear repreentation of the famou American-born chanteue, wa exhibited to the Pari art community during the ame period that hi circu wa drawing attention. He decided to return to New York City late in 1927, where he gave a one-man how that included Joephine Baker, a well a everal of hi other wire portrait. Thoe portrait would grow

Concept of Sustainble Development Essay Example for Free

Concept of Sustainble Development Essay The tradition concept of development has for a considerable period of time been driven by economic considerations. Exploitation of natural resources which leads to environmental degradation motivated by targets of maximum profits has been the norm and little regard has been granted to the side effects of development initiatives. Gradual escalation of awareness and realisation of the range as well as the magnitude of environmental effects of development initiatives led to worldwide discussions on the way forward. Consequently, the concept sustainable development was conceived. However, this concept is perceived to be oxymoron by environmentalists, in other terms it is viewed as a combination of two contradicting terminologies. In view of the above, this essay endeavours to explain with relevant specific examples the reason why environmentalists consider the concept sustainable development as an oxymoron. In order to establish a good argument, two literature definitions of sustainable development shall be given. This will be followed by an explanation why sustainable development is considered to be oxymoron and this shall be supported by examples. And only after then shall a conclusion be stressed. According to the Ministry of Tourism, Environment and Natural Resources (2007: V) sustainable development is defined as, â€Å"development that meets the needs and aspirations of the present generation without causing deterioration and without compromising the ability to meet the needs of future generations†. On the other hand Todaro and Smith (2003) asserted that sustainable development entails both intra-generational and inter-generational equity. These concepts project a requirement of the present generation to meet their needs and aspirations without destroying the ability of the future generations to come and meet their needs and aspirations. As earlier alluded to, the concept s ustainable development is a mixture of two words with distinct opposing interpretations. According to Arend and Eureta (2002) sustainability entails the maintenance of the extraordinary diversity of plants, animals and insects that exist on earth. The other term development is known as a multidimensional phenomenon which has several aspects namely; economic, social, political, cultural and environmental. It is imperative to acknowledge the fact that true development involves a record of progress in all the dimensions of the development process. Furthermore, it is also necessary to be cognisant of the point that the environment and global systems which includes development are a series of dynamic and interconnected processes changing and interacting overtime, (Todaro and smith, 2003). From the definitions provided above, it is apparent that the two expressions sustainability and development contradict each other. This is due to the point that sustainability emphasizes on maintaining diversity and productivity of natural resources overtime. On the contrary, natural resources fuel the process of development; therefore, development cannot be a reality without consuming natural resources. The global community is hungry for development as a result people are constantly improving their livelihoods and welfare so as to attain higher standards of living through many innovations such as technology which in turn negatively impact on the environment. The question which maybe asked here is â€Å"what forms the basis of livelihoods?† (ECZ, 2008). According to ECZ (2000), the environment is the cornerstone of our livelihoods because biological resources are the primary sources of economic development thus development is all about consuming natural resources. Besides development, population dynamics also exert pressure on natural resources. With a clear reflection that development is all about the utilisation of natural resources, how then can sustainability be transformed into actuality? This is the question asked by many environmental practioners. It is evident through many global development initiatives how planetary natural resources are being utilized in order to achieve desired development targets. The two terminologies sustainability and development can be compared to a saying that says â€Å"two cobras cannot stay in the same mountain one has to die or eventually leave the mountain†. Therefore, sustainability and development are two cobras staying in the same mountain. The implication according to environmentalists is that, if we are to achieve ultimate sustainability then development should be out of the picture, (Energy Regulation Board, 2007). In Zambia, development programmes are using environmental resources at an increasing rate. With a fast growing population, the drive to meet goals set out in national development strategies and in international conventions, most recently defined in the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), has likewise accelerat ed. As an example to illustrate the contradiction between sustainability and development, urbanisation in Chipata district can be utilized. As by definition, urbanisation may also mean development of land into residential, commercial and industrial properties. Urbanisation in Chipata has resulted in a number of negative environmental impacts which have adversely affected the diversity of biological resources. Consequential environmental effects include deforestation which has provoked excessive vegetative removal of tree cover along streams and on hills around Chipata town. Furthermore, land degradation due to urbanization is also prevalent in Chipata and this has led to soil erosion, sand and earth mining and degradation of catchment areas of Lunkhwakwa and Lutembwe rivers, (ECZ, 2008). Chipata district has over 56,000 hectors of land under protection and most areas are threatened by encroachment and deforestation due to urbanisation. Urbanisation in Chipata can be considered as progress from a developmental perspective because more houses, shops and industries have been erected and this has advanced people’s liv elihoods in terms of increased housing facilities and employment opportunities. However, this contradicts with sustainability because there has been excessive destruction of forests on the hills of Chipata which has resulted in extreme soil erosion down the slope, (ECZ, 2008). With reference to the economic dimension of the development process, the construction and expansion of mining as well as manufacturing industries can be perceived as progress. This is due to the fact that the existence of operational industries attracts various benefits to the local people. Firstly, job opportunities are created for the local and this helps them sustain their lives by acquiring wages at the end of each month. Salaries obtained by people from employment give them the ability to command their basic needs such as food, shelter and clothes, (MoFNP, 2006). The mining industry has played a pivotal role in the development of the country. However, the availability of exposed, accessible and near surface mineral deposits are increasingly becoming scarce requiring more expensive equipment to locate deeper buried ore deposits. This has led to gigantic environmental degradation due to the use of heavy sophisticated earth moving machines. For instance, when Konkola copper Mines (KCM) took over from Zambia Consolidated Copper Mines (ZCCM) on the copperbelt, Chingola and Chililabombwe in particular. After a while later, the production scale was upgraded and this created employment opportunities for over three thousand individuals who were unemployed, (MoFNP, 2006). Other benefits included improved infrastructure such as roads and schools as well as better health services. According to economists and development planners this was considered as national development because the lives of people were improved. However, the view of economists and development planners contradict with that of environmentalists because an elevation in the production scale of any industry is problematic as far as environmental sustainability is concerned because of unsustainable production strategies that hamper a good quality of life, (ECZ, 2011). According to ECZ (2008) mining activities especially large-scale open pit mining has negatively affected the environment resulting into environmental degradation. Among the prominent open pit mines are Nchanga, Kansanshi and Maamba collieries. Despite development enhanced by these mines, industrial operations of these sites have caused the contamination of terrestrial ecosystems mostly ascribed to dust fall-out and this has been a draw back as far as the maintenance of biological resources diversity and productivity are concerned. Kafue River on the copperbelt was polluted by Konkola copper Mines Plc due to toxic substances which were discharged into the water body. This occurrence negatively affected marine ecosystems which resulted in a depletion of certain species. Water resources have been affected by climate change and other factors such as increase in population growth, industry and agriculture which are induced by development. Unfortunately, there has been no corresponding expansion of sewerage infrastructure and solid waste disposal facilities and most of them are in a poor state, despite the increasing rate of development and this actually curbs sustainability. However, it must be realized that only after the last tree has been cut, only after the last river has been poisoned, only after the last fish has been caught only then will it be discovered that money cannot be eaten, (ECZ, 2008). Human sustainability has also been affected due to the side effects of development which have made the environment unsafe to support a good quality of life. The rate at which development is happening has put so much pressure on the environment and this has resulted into various environmental issues such as air pollution, water pollution, land pollution and ozone layer depletion among others. Environmentalists have identified that increasing industrial operations in Zambia have negatively influenced life expectancy and infant mortality rate. For example, adult survivorship levels have been declining in the last twenty years following rapid development trends. Life expectancy for females dropped from 46 years in 1980 to 44 years and 29 years in 2000. In the same category for males it was 44 years in 1980, 42 years in 1990 and 23 years in 2000. Diseases associated with environmental degradation include malaria, tuberculosis, asthma, bronchitis and dysentery among others and these so far have claimed quite a considerable number of lives, (MoFNP, 2006). In conclusion, it can be said that development and sustainability are two ends of the same continuum. Whichever example of development one might think of such as industrialization and housing, they are unsustainable, unless that development is related to green technologies or meant to counter the adverse effectives of development. In the end, the solution is a compromise because people need sustainability but cannot progress without development, hence, sustainable development. We can have development as long as we put measures in place to minimise environment damage. These measures include environmental impact assessments, environmental audits and strategic environmental assessments among others, hereafter ensuring sustainability. REFERENCES Arend. H and Eureta. J (2002). Environmental Encyclopaedia: South Africa: Eco-Logic Publication. ECZ (2000). The State of the Environment in Zambia. Lusaka: Environmental Council of Zambia. ECZ (2008). Zambia Environment Outlook Report 3. Lusaka: Environmental Council of Zambia. ECZ (2011). The Enviroline; ECZ Magazine Issue No. 33, January-April 2011. Lusaka: Environmental Council of Zambia. Energy Regulation Board, (2007). Energy Regulations Board: Energy Sector Report-2006. Ministry of Tourism, Environment and Natural Resources (2007). National Policy On The Environment. Lusaka: MTENR. Ministry of Finance and National Planning (2006). Economic Report. Lusaka: Zambia. Todaro M.P and Smith S.C (2003). Economic development.8th edition.New Delhi, Pearson Publication.